mongolian invader

VietNamNet Bridge � Scientists have discovered the truth about two Vietnamese princes who achieved fame in the Republic of Korea (RoK), said Kim Yong Deok, Chairman of the Northeast Asia History Fund.



According to the Korean professor, Vietnamese prince Ly Long Tuong went to Korea in the 13th century when this country was struggling against Mongolian invaders. This prince was conferred a high title in the Korean court by the Korean King.



The Korean King also granted land to the Vietnamese prince in Hoa Son and the Ly Hoa Son family was formed. This family was always loyal to Korean kings.



The offspring of Vietnamese prince Ly Long Tuong were also put in important positions. A member of this family was appointed to be Mayor of Seoul, but he refused.



At present, many members of the Ly Hoa Son family are living in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and some others in the RoK. Some of them are famous in the RoK, for example Ly Thuong Tuan, Chairman of the Golden Bridge group, Lee Hee Boem, former Deputy Minister of Industry, and Lee Chang Kem, Chairman of a big group.



Another Ly family from Vietnam has been found in Korea. Another Vietnamese prince named Ly Tinh Thien settled in Korea around 100 years before prince Ly Long Tuong. Historical documents show that offspring of this prince were mandarins in Korean dynasties, according to the Korean professor.


ULAN BATOR, Mongolia -- On the vast flatlands of eastern Mongolia, enclosed by a two-mile wall in the form of an oval, diggers have uncovered tantalizing clues to the solution of one of history's enduring mysteries: the site of Genghis Khan's secret grave.

Finding the spot where the great Mongolian conqueror was laid to rest in 1227 by his famed horseback warriors would fill in a blank that has fascinated historians for centuries. Although he and his descendants galloped out of Mongolia to subdue most of the known world, Genghis Khan was buried without a monument or even a headstone, in keeping with Mongol belief that the dead should not be disturbed. Legend has it that the soldiers who carried out the mission were slaughtered to make sure the secret was safe for all time.



A portrait of Genghis Khan in the Mongolian Embassy in Beijing. The conqueror was buried in 1227 without any grave marker. (By Ng Han Guan -- Associated Press)

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For eight centuries it has been, despite a number of more or less scientific expeditions, claims and counterclaims, some of them evocative of an Indiana Jones movie. But a U.S.-Mongolian expedition organized by Maury Kravitz, a retired Chicago commodities trader, made what may have been a breakthrough two summers ago. His explorers unearthed several graves dating from the 13th century inside the wall, a shambles of stone 200 miles east of Ulan Bator, the Mongolian capital. Shagdaryn Bira, secretary general of the International Association for Mongol Studies and a recognized authority, said the graves are a promising sign that the wall could surround the bodies of Genghis Khan and his closest kin.

"Some Mongolian scholars are of the opinion that this might be a Genghis Khan family burial ground, including several generations, and perhaps including the great Khan himself," Bira said in an interview here. Not yet convinced, but highly intrigued, the tall, gray cultural historian said he was eager to see another round of careful scientific digging to confirm the hopes.

"My dream is to find the tomb," said Bira, 78. He has spent a scholarly life accumulating knowledge about the warrior-statesman who united the Mongolian nation 800 years ago and founded an imperial dynasty whose power at one time extended from China to the Middle East.

Kravitz, who shares the dream to the point of obsession, said he was unable to continue searching last summer because of a shortage of funds and an associate's health problems. But he is raising money for an expedition this summer to comb the now-frozen site anew in hopes of confirming it as a family burial ground -- and eventually of pinpointing the grave of the conqueror himself.

"That's where we spend our time, because in my considered opinion that's where the tomb of Genghis Khan lies," he said by telephone from Chicago. "We're going to continue working until we find what we're looking for."

Although Kravitz has been seeking Genghis Khan's tomb for 14 years, the coming dig is likely to generate more than the usual interest here. Mongolians this year have organized a round of horse races and other celebrations to commemorate the 800th anniversary of what they regard as Genghis Khan's first great achievement: unification of Mongolian tribes into a single state.

In most of the world, mention of Genghis Khan evokes images of the bloodshed and violence committed by his cavalrymen as they pushed west. When Americans moved against Afghanistan's Taliban in 2001, for instance, Afghan officials compared the invasion to Mongolian attacks in the 13th century and in revenge killed a number of ethnic Hazaras, who descend from those early Mongolian invaders, according to "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World," a 2004 book by Jack Weatherford. Similarly, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, facing U.S. attack in 2003, drew a comparison between the Americans and the Mongolians who sacked Baghdad in 1258 and executed the caliph.

Mongolians have remembered Genghis Khan as the founder of a vast empire who delivered such advances as free-trade zones, census-taking, international postal systems and equality before the law to backward medieval Europeans. The far-reaching Mongol rule of the 13th and 14th centuries was, Bira said, a form of globalization practiced long before the term was invented.

Genghis Khan's descendants have enthusiastically embraced this conception of their heritage. Recent governments have sought closer relations with foreign countries after nearly a century as an isolated Soviet satellite. In that vein, the Mongolian Embassy in Washington has raised the idea of erecting a Genghis Khan statue. And here in Ulan Bator, a trendy crowd gathers nightly at the Great Khaan Irish Pub to drink pints of lager imported from Singapore while English soccer plays on big-screen Japanese televisions in a setting patterned on American sports bars.

Kravitz, who also has developed an admiration for Genghis Khan's contributions to civilization, said he first became interested in the Mongolian conqueror 45 years ago when a friend gave him a history book to while away the time during service in the U.S. Army in Germany. Although trained as a lawyer and for years busy most of the time on the commodities trading floor, Kravitz said, he read everything he could find on Genghis Khan. In the process, he accumulated a collection of books and documents that he said graduate students still come to consult. But most passionately, he has since 1992 tried to solve the mystery of Genghis Khan's tomb by making nearly annual research expeditions to the Mongolian steppes.
"All warfare is based on deception….Feign disorder, and crush him. If he is secure at all points, be prepared for him. If he is in superior strength, evade him. If your opponent is of choleric temper, seek to irritate him. Pretend to be weak, that he may grow arrogant. If he is taking his ease, give him no rest. If his forces are united, separate them. Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where you are not expected."

Sun Tzu, The Art of War

Although Chinghis and Sun Tzu were not contemporaries, much of the opening quote applies to Mongolian warfare, where deception formed a basis of battle strategy, and combined with high levels of discipline, organization and personal strength to make the Mongolian army a fierce force to be reckoned with.

The Mongols believed that their Great Khan was directed by god to conquer and rule the world. Resistance to him was resistance to god and punishable by death. Conquest on the scale envisioned by Chinghis1 needed a high degree of discipline and organization. Their power lay in tribal confederation and non-assimilation of foreign ways.

The Mongolian Army - Structure

The leadership of the army was comprised of:

Khan / Khagan2 - Commander-in-chief of the army, leader of the patriarchal clans which formed the ordu, or camp.

Noyan - The equivalent of prince, serving directly under the khan. The noyan was commander of the tumen and minghan units,

Bahadur - The equivalent of the European rank of knight. The Bahadur were also referred to as the Old Elite Life Guard, who served as personal bodyguards to the khan. The bahadur made up the khagan's household, and served as the officer's college. No man could command without first having served in this group. Sons of noyans were automatically admitted, others were selected though competitions that were held on a yearly basis. In battle, this guard surrounded the khagan and rose only at the decisive moment. During times of peace, they trained constantly and attended council to learn the business of command.

Kashik - Also called the Imperial Guard, consisted of the Day Guard, Night Guard and Quiver Bearers. Each of these guards was made up of three minghan.

Yurtchis - Quartermaster of the ordos, responsible for choosing camp sites, laying out and running camp, organizing supplies and communications. Chief yurtchis were responsible for camp administration, reconnaissance and intelligence.

The body of the army was made up of:

Tumen - a unit of 10,000 men, divided into 10 minghan.

Minghan - a unit of 1,000 men which was divided into 10 jagun.

Commanders of both the tumen and the minghan were selected by the khan.

Jagun - 100 men divided into 10 arban, or troups.

Arban - a unit of 10 men, who selected a commander from their own ranks.

The commanders of the arban selected the commander of the jagun.

The Mongolian army had at least three tumens of cavalry, and several minghans of artillery and engineers, as well as interpreters and merchants who acted as spies, and an officer of the lost and found. Chinese served as mapmakers, doctors, diplomats, scientists and civil administrators in captured territories. They conducted censuses, surveyed crops and climate, and hired the interpreters and spies. The army was commanded by the khan / khagan through his generals.

The Mongolian Army - Uniforms and Armor

White was a sacred color, reserved for the khan / khagan. His armor and tunic were white or white and gold, and he typically rode a white mount.

The bahadur wore black armor, a black tunic with red facings, and rode a black horse with a red leather saddle.

The basic uniform for all others was either a blue tunic with facings, or a brown tunic with light blue facings. Officers had gold and silver threads in their facings. Trousers were blue or gray. Both tunics and trousers were lined with fur in the winter. All men work silk undershirts.3 Boots were leather, flat soled (no heels) and laced up the front.

In addition to this, light cavalry work a quilted tunic, or a cuirass of lacquered leather strips, and a leather helmet. Heavy cavalry wore a coat of mail (flat rings on leather until they were introduced to Persian chain mail) with a cuirass of ox hide, or iron scale covered in leather and held together with thongs (similar to Samurai armor). The iron helmet was covered with lacquered leather (presumably to avoid rust) and had a horsetail crest.

Tumens and tribes were distinguished from each other by quilted cone-shaped caps with fur brims. Rank was denoted by a pair of red ribbons, which hung from the crown and down the back. They type of fur used on the brim also denoted rank. (I believe the Manchurian hats with upturned fur brims and ribbons of later centuries, evolved from Mongolian army caps.)

The Mongolian Army - Provisions and weaponry

Provisions were carried in saddlebags and included:

A change of clothing

A sheepskin coat

A cook pot

Yogurt, millet, dried meat, kumiss (fermented mare's milk)

A leather water bottle

A fish line

A hatchet

Files for sharpening arrows

Needles, thread and other repair equipment

Saddlebags were waterproof and could be inflated to act as life jackets. Some men (logically 1 man in each arban) also carried a tent and a circular hide for a ground cover.

Each man carried with him a wicker shield covered with thick leather (usually ox hide), 2 bows, a lasso, and a dagger which was strapped to the inside of his left forearm. Light cavalry also carried a small sword and 2-3 javelins. Heavy cavalry carried a scimitar, a battle ax or mace, and a 12 foot lance with a horsehair pennant and a hook below the blade.

The bow was the most important weapon. The Mongolian composite bow was made from layers of horn and sinew on a wood frame which was then lacquered. Compared to the English long bow which had a 75 pound pull and a 250 yard range, the Mongolian recurve bow had a 160 pound pull with a range of 350 yards. Mongolian archers wore a stone ring on their right thumb, which they used to release the bowstring (rather than their fingers), which increased the velocity and speed of release of the arrow. Arrows were of various types, including those for short range, long range, armor piercers with tempered tips, whistling signal arrows, incendiary, and grenade-tipped. Each man carried 2 quivers, which held about 30 arrows each.

The horse was the most prized possession the Mongol owned. They were generally 13-14 hands high, some may have been as large as 16 hands. For the first two years of a pony's life, they were ridden hard and broken in. After three years of pasturing they were then trained for battle. Steppe horses were renowned for their courage and endurance. They only needed to be watered once a day, and they could dig for grass under the snow, which eliminated the army's need to carry feed. Mares were preferred because both the milk and the blood could be drunk for sustenance.

Each warrior had between 3-20 horses, which allowed them to ride non-stop. A Mongolian horseman could string a bow from his saddle, as well as eat and sleep on horseback. Herds of up to 10,000 head accompanied the army and were divided by color, which served as another definition of rank. Weak horses were killed for food, but horses which had been used in battle were not. When a battle horse went lame, it was put out to pasture. If it was a favorite of its owner, it was killed at the owner's death so the two spirits could be together in the afterlife.

Harnesses and saddles were decorated with silver. Horses ridden by heavy cavalry were armored (probably with ox hide).

The Mongolian Army - Training and tactics

The harsh and demanding lifestyle provided Mongolian soldiers with endurance, mobility and other warlike qualities. Mongolians were also very dedicated to their leaders, and were highly disciplined. Their European counterparts however, went to war with little training or discipline, very little experience in fighting as a unit, and as often as not, went to war for profit under the guise of religious crusade. The feudal system allowed men to lead based on their wealth rather than on tactical ability.

Training for the Mongolian army took the form of the hulega, or Great Hunt, a slow, circular advance made at a steady pace which they called the wolf lope. It was conducted like a campaign and was designed to teach discipline, strategy and unity under command.

The favorite tactic was to strike suddenly and unexpectedly. Data was collected from spies; 'merchants' spread propaganda to lower enemy morale; maps were studied and strategies planned. Scouts rode in front of reconnaissance patrols, followed by army unit riding in formation with a center, two wings, a vanguard and a rearguard. The most often used method of attack was the tulghma, or Standard Sweep, in which the light cavalry was sent forward to attack at right angles, with the heavy cavalry sweeping around and charging the enemy from the rear. Another favorite maneuver was the mangudai. A light cavalry of suicide troops charged the enemy, then retreated, leading the enemy into an ambush of heavy cavalry.

Units communicated with each other with a variety of signals, including whistling arrows or flags by day, torches at night. Dispatches were sent via courier, through a pony express system called the Yam. Roads became thoroughfares throughout the Mongolian Empire, with rest stations and fresh horses every 25 miles. This allowed couriers to ride 120 miles a day. Roads also allowed the army to move columns of soldiers at great distances, making simultaneous thrusts, surrounding the enemy, and appearing to be a larger force than they actually were.

If the Mongolian army was too heavily outnumbered, they would turn aside, putting a day or two's journey between themselves and the enemy, and then lay waste to whatever was around them, which had the effect of depleting supplies that would normally have been foraged by the enemy. Mongolian armies might also retreat for 10-12 days, until the opposing army had disbanded, then attack them. Mongolians gained victory by destroying the enemy and progressively dominating the territories of those they conquered. The Mongols were able to do this in Russia by dividing the country and then weakening it.

The artillery stayed behind with the engineers (typically Persians), reserves and remounts. The Mongols learned about siege weapons from either the Chinese, and improved upon them when they invaded Iran. Chinese siege engines used by the Mongols were:

Light catapult - operated by 40 men, it threw a 200 pound projectile about 100 yards. It was easily dismantled and transported on pack animals.

Heavy catapult - operated by 100 men, it threw a 250 pound missile about 150 yards. It was used to shoot containers of burning tar, which acted as a smoke screen. Incendiary bombs were also launched at fortifications and city walls; these bombs, made from naptha and quick lime, were not as accurate or as destructive as other forms of missiles, but were terrifying and an effective psychological weapon.

Ballista - looked like a giant crossbow and could shoot a heavy arrow the same distance as the heavy catapult but with more accuracy. It could be dismantled and transported like the light catapult.

Artillery was used to blitzkrieg the enemy if they had a strong defensive position. A prolonged barrage at several points was followed by archers who opened gaps in the wall, followed by the first wave of heavy cavalry under cover of the archers. This procedure was mopped up by the artillery and the rest of the army. Another method of siege was to drive the enemy into their city with archers. The city was then sealed off with a wooden palisade which took 9-10 days to build. This prevented messengers from escaping and protected the Mongolian archers. Then the siege began, using catapults, rams, and javelin throwers. During the consequent storming of the city, some survivors were allowed to escape to spread stories of terror to other nearby towns. Still another method involved damming a nearby river and diverting its flow to flood a city. The Amo River, used for this purpose, now has a new course from what it had prior to the 13th century.

The Mongols were regarded by the rest of the world as superhuman---the reputation that preceded them was one of their strongest weapons. As a fighting machine, the Mongols possessed great mobility, organization, discipline, and total dedication.

The Mongolian Army - Invasion Timeline

1206

Temujin, after uniting the nomadic tribes of the steppes into the Mongolian Federation of Tribes, is proclaimed khagan, and given the name of Chinghis.4 He begins a series of foreign conquests the following year.



1207-1210

Chinghis sends his eldest son Jochi to defeat the Oirat, Buriyat, Turkish Kirghiz and Tumet tribes. The next battle is against the kingdom of Si-hia in the Ordos desert. This is a stronghold of Buddhism and Chinese culture with an army of 150,000. Jochi lays siege until 1210, when the capital city of Chungsing surrenders. In the meantime, Chinghis takes the kingdom of Karakhitai, of which most subjects are Turks. In 1209 Barchuk, the ruler of the Uighur Turks, joins with Chinghis.



1211-1217

Jaghatai, Jochi, Ogodei5 and Chinghis lead three forces totaling 120,000 men across the Gobi Desert against the Chin army of 500,000, and defeat them in 1217. Turkistan is invaded on this campaign and absorbed by Chinghis in 1215.



1219

Chinghis, now allied with Prince Hsiang, leads an army of 150,000 cavalry, including 10,000 Chinese siege engineers and Moslem interpreters who acted as spies, against Muhammad II, Shah of Khwarizm, and his army of 300,000, who were scattered in garrisons in several cities. Muhammad flees and dies in 1220, and is succeeded by Gelal-ad-Din.



1221

In February, reconnaissance into Europe begins. Jebe6 and Subetai (the Brave),7 while pursuing Muhammed, overrun Iran and winter on the steppe of Mughan in Azerbaijan. Under Jebe and Subetai, 20,000 Mongols are attacked by 70,000 men under King George IV of Armenia on the Khumen Plain. The Mongols wait for the Georgian cavalry to charge and exhaust their horses, then scatter their forces under a hail of arrows. The Mongols then mount fresh horses, advance under another screen of arrows, and drive a wedge into the Georgian army. George withdraws with his fastest horsemen and returns to their capital city to prepare for a siege.

The Mongols sack Maragha and Ramadan for horses and treasure, then return to their camp on the delta of Kura. At the beginning of winter they return to Georgia to Derbend---the fortress which protects Bab-al-Abwab Pass, leading to the steppes. George rides to Tiflis where he is ambushed and defeated. He later dies there. The Mongols then go on to attack Astrakhan on the Sea of Azov. It is during this sacking that Subetai first comes in contact with the Europeans.



1222 -1223

Jebe and Subetai prepare to invade Russia with Jochi, who is to meet them, but who falls ill. Jebe and Subetai overrun the Ukraine and the Crimea and winter there. They are attacked by Mstislav of Galich and his force of 100,000 men who cross the Dneiper River. Mstislav's forces then retreat to Kalka and are destroyed there.

Chinghis falls ill and returns to the Mongolian capital city of Karakorum in 1223. There, he divides his kingdom into ulusut for his sons to rule:

Tolui, the youngest son, is given the homelands of Mongolia

Jaghatai is given China and Mongolia

Ogodei and Jochi are to share rule over all lands west from Irtysh and the Aral Sea to Russia.

Jebe and Subetai are recalled to Mongolia upon hearing of Chinghis's ill health. Jochi joins up with them, but dies on the way home and is replaced by Batu.8 Chinghis appoints Ogodei as his successor. Chinghis' wife Borte is appointed regent until the khurlitai,9 and Tolui is appointed regent between the time of the khurlitai and the coronation of the new khagan.



1227 - 1229

Chinghis dies on August 24, 1227 and is taken back to Mongolia for burial. Ogodei is chosen as khagan at the khurlitai in Karakorum in 1229. His reign began the civil administration over the federation of tribes.



1236-1237

Russia is in political collapse. Subetai and Batu lead 50,000 Mongols and 70,000 Turks against the Kingdom of Bulgar, which is defeated and becomes a vassal state of Mongolia the following year. In 1237, the Mongols attack the Cumans on the Volga and Don Rivers. During the following winter, the Mongols also take Moscow, Suzdal, Tver and other Russian cities. They destroy the army of Grand Duke Yuri, but the spring thaw prevents them from entering Novgorod and the Baltic Coast. Subetai turns south and camps on the Don River before returning home.



1240 - 1242

The Mongols advance on Kiev under the command of Mongke.10 The city, already declined into rival principalities, faces invasion by both the Mongols (who are tolerant of religions other than their own) and the Franks (Latin Christians who did not have similar religious tolerance). Choosing the leser of the two evils, Kiev falls to the Mongolians army under Batu in December. Batu splits his army into three branches. One branch, under generals Kaidu and Baidar, enters Poland. After defeating the Polish army at Chmielnik, they proceed to Breslau in four columns while the fifth column overruns Lithuania and East Prussia. At Wahlstatt, Archduke Henry of Silesia is ambushed and killed by Kaidu, who then turns south to join Batu.



General Kadan leads another branch into southern Hungary through the Carpathian Mountains. Batu and Subetai lead the final branch into central Hungary against King Bela, to punish him for having given asylum to 200,000 Cumans in 1238. Beta's army finds Batu's camp at the junction of the Sayo and Theiss Rivers, but are surrounded by Batu's army at night and are defeated. Batu reaches Pesth by mid-March, cutting Hungary in half and severing communications between the two sides. Batu occupies Hungary until 1242, when news of the death of Ogodei reaches him. This piece of news prevents Batu from invading Austria, Bohemia and the rest of Europe. Batu returns to Karakorum, ravaging Albania, Damatia and Serbia on his way. The Mongolian Empire now numbers one million, not including non-Mongol states.



1246-1251

Ogodei's widow Artedais serves as regent until the new khagan can be elected. Although Ogodei appointed his grandson Kubilai, Artedais succeeds in putting her own son Kuyuk on the throne. However, Kuyuk dies two years later and Mongke, nominated by Batu, becomes khagan in 1251. In a controversial move, Batu later establishes himself at Sarai (65 miles north of Astrakhan on the lower Volga River) and holds his own khurlitai, where he is proclaimed (or proclaims himself) khagan. Batu breaks allegiance with Karakorum and rules independently as the Great Khan of the Golden Horde (from the Mongol altun ardu). Although Batu's tribes are mostly Turkish, the official language remains Mongolian, and it remains a province of the Mongol Empire. This is the beginning of the splintering of Chinghis's empire, and begins the demise of the Mongolians as a coherent ruling force by the 14th century.



Italian trade settlements at Kaffa, Sudak and Kertch are maintained by Genoese and Venetians. The Mongols take over direct administration in the Ukraine, but allow Russian princes to administer most of the rest of Russia. Tribute takes the form of annual taxes from merchants and farmers, and animals from Russian nomads and cattle breeders. The Mongols interest in land was not political (they did not care who owned it), but rather they viewed land as a source for troops and revenue, assessed through annual censuses which were carried out by the Chinese. Their only political interest was for the Russian nobility to acknowledge their khagan at Karakorum as the Supreme Ruler. Batu's aim was to keep Russian princes disunited; rivalry was encouraged through the naming of one of the princes as Grand Duke, a title which was revoked and transferred by the ruling Khagan at will.



1255-1299

Hulagu, a grandson to Chinghis, conquers Transoxiana, Iran and Iraq and establishes the Iklhan Horde in Iran. Batu dies at old Sarai in 1255, leaving a territory from the upper Ob River to the lower Syr Darya, and from the Caspian coast to the Black Sea. A decline in leadership begins. Berke succeeds him in 1257 and dies in 1266. Mongke Temur becomes khagan in 1266, but Nogai Noyan is the actual hand of power, and the cause of much infighting among the Mongolian ruling class. Nogai urges the Russian princes to fight against Poland and Lithuania, while he advances on south Poland and Hungary. Mongke Temur dies in 1280 and is succeeded by Tuda Mongke, who later abdicates to Teleboge, who is later seized and given to Tokhtu whom Nogai later proclaims as Khagan. Nogai takes dominion in the Crimea, and is later opposed by Tokhtu, who sides against him in a war between Venice and Genoa. Nogai dies in 1299.



Kubilai, grandson of Chinghis, conquers China in 1279 and establishes the Yuan Dynasty.



Ghazan, great grandson of Hulagu, has become a Muslim and the Ilkhans become the national dynasty of Iran. Ties to the Mongol Khagans to the East dissipate.



1312-1378

Tokhtu dies and is succeeded by Ozbeg,11 who appoints Ivan Kalita of Moscow as Grand Duke. This office remains with the princes of Moscow until the end of Mongol rule in Russia. Ozbeg dies in 1341 and is succeeded by his son Janibeg who dies in 1357, and is in turn succeeded by Beribeg. The Golden Horde loses interest in lands south of the Caucasus. Beribeg is murdered in 1359. Timur becomes a major player and establishes Samarkand as hie capitol in 1335. The Golden Horde is counter-attacked successfully in 1363 at the battle of Kulikouo by Dmitry Donskoy, Prince of Moscow. This battle is the first major defeat suffered by the Golden Horde.



Civil war breaks out between rivals for the khanate and Russian princes attempting to overthrow Moscow. The Lithuanian Grand Dukes extend their power as far as Kiev. The Golden Horde's territory is divided between the rulers of the Crimea, Astrakhan and Khwarazm. Timur Melik makes himself master of Khwarazm, and helps Tokhtamysh in his possession of Astrakhan and Sarai in 1378.



1382-1430

Tokhtamysh leads the last successful siege on Moscow. After three days he gains entry into the city on the premise of offering to discuss peace terms, but once inside, his armies slaughter the entire city. Tokhtamysh also invades Caucasia and Transoxiana. He appoints Vassili of Moscow as ruler of Novgorod, and invades Causcasia in 1391 and 1394. He is defeated both times by Timur,12 who destroys Tokhtamysh's power bases at Astrakhan, Sarai, Bulgar and the Crimea. Timur dies in 1405 while on campaign against China. Tokhtamysh is later killed by a local khan, and is succeeded by Edigu, who continues to rule the Golden Horde as an independent state. Moscow continues to be attacked unsuccessfully by Edigu, Tamerlane and other khans. The Golden Horde begins to break up in about 1430.



1462-1472

Vassili dies and bequeaths his duchy to Ivan III. After ascending the throne, Ivan plots against the khanate of Kazan, one of four independent states once held by the Golden Horde. Ivan invades the khanate in 1467 and several times after that. Though he fails to capture the khanate, the repeated raids weaken the Mongols. Ahmed, the new khan of the Golden Horde, threatens Moscow in 1465 and 1472 but is undermined by internal struggles between his khanate and the Mongols of the Crimea and Lithuania.



1480-1499

Ahmed is murdered by Siberian and Nogai Mongols at Sarai, Leaving his horde without a leader. Ivan III formally renounces Russia's allegiance with the Mongols, and stops paying tribute. The Mongolian rule over Russia declines. The Crimean Mongols ally with Moscow against the Lithuanian Mongols by 1499. The last remnants of the Golden Horde are defeated and dispersed in 1502.



1505-1689

Ivan III is succeeded by his son Ivan IV. The Golden Horde has come to an end. The khanantes of Kazan and the Crimea prepare to act together against Moscow, but are defeated outside of Crimea by Ivan's armies, whose cannon and hand guns are unknown to the steppe tribes. The Girai Khanate continues in the Crimea until Peter the Great comes to power in 1689, bringing a final end to the Mongolian Empire.

The Mongolian Legacy

The Mongols were the last and most destructive invaders to come from the steppes. Even though Europe was saved from invasion by the deaths of Ogodei and Mansu, the Mongolian campaign had the following far-reaching and negative consequences:

Herring glut - In 1238, the British herring market became glutted when ships from the Baltic didn't arrive because of preparations they were making against the Mongols. Fifty herrings sold for one shilling.

Genoese monopoly - Subetai signed a treaty with the Genoese, who acted as spies in return for the Mongol destruction of all other trading posts in the Crimea, which gave the Genoese a monopoly there.

Russian economy - Russia suffered a ruined economy and exploited peasantry, as well as self-important and abusive aristocrats.



However, not all consequences were dire:



Western Europe gained knowledge of Asia through missionaries and diplomats. Routes were reopened to China from the West and merchants, envoys and missionaries were guaranteed safe passage under the Mongol rule.

China flourished during Kubilai's reign, since many of the governing officials left court and turned to artistic and scientific pursuits.

The Eastern Orthodox Church became isolated from Constantinople, and became self sufficient and unchallenged by foreign ideas. Christians were guaranteed freedom of worship. Church lands were exempt from taxes, and clergy were exempt from army recruitment. This helped to strengthen the church and unify its people against the Mongolian invaders.

Novgorod became a center of trade. Baltic trade was stimulated because of the prosperity it brought to the Golden Horde. Russians were allowed to collect taxes for the Mongols and became autonomous.

Russia's population spread out evenly across the countryside as forests were cut down and agriculture was expanded.

The success of Chinghis lay in the strategies of his general, Subetai, as well as his own skill and organization in battle. The Mongol nation was eventually defeated by their own political infighting, disintegration in their discipline, and their shift from the harshness of nomadic culture, to the soft luxuries of city life. The introduction of firearms to Eastern Europe also played a major role, as they changed the nature of war throughout Europe, and later, the world at large.

Footnotes

1. Although there are many spellings of Chinghis Khan, I prefer this more obscure one, which phonetically resembles the name's meaning, which is "the sound of iron being forged".

2. Under the Mongolian Federation of Tribes, each tribe had a khan, the Mongolian term for chief. Khagan is the Mongolian term for "khan over all khans" or "Great Khan".

3. A silk shirt did not pierce when shot, but instead traveled with the arrowhead into the flesh. The Mongols found that pulling the shirt extracted the arrow point, which kept the wound clean since it never came into contact with the metal tip, which in turn lowered a soldier's risk of infection.

4.The Secret History of the Mongols, adapted by Paul Kahn, North Point Press, San Francisco, 1984.

5. All sons of Chinghis

6. Jebe, also known as Jirghogadai, from the defeated Tayichigud tribe, is one of Chinghis' four generals.

7. Subetai, also spelled in some sources as Subedai, was also one of Chinghis's four generals.

8. Batu, son of Jochi and founder of the Golden Horde.

9. Khurlitai, the gathering of all the tribes for the purpose of electing the new khagan. By tradition, the wife (khatun) of the deceased khagan ruled as regent until the khurlitai was held. Although this text refers to the next khagan being named (as in the case of Chinghis appointing Ogodei to succeed him) such appointments had to be ratified at the khurlitai before the title was recognized. Being named a successor did not always guarantee the right to rule, if the khurlitai or political intrigue placed someone else as khagan.

10. Mongke, also spelled Mongge, eldest son of Tolui and fourth khagan of the Mongolian Empire.

11. Ozbeg, nephew to Tokhtu, khan of the Golden Horde, who is also known as Tokhtagha. Ozbeg is Islamic, the Uzbeg tribe is named after him. History of the Mongols by Bertold Spuler, Dorset Press, NY 1988.

12. Timur, also known as Tamerlane.